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Scientists baffled at mysterious ancient creature that doesn't fit on the tree of life as we know it [livescience.com]:

A bizarre ancient life-form, considered to be the first giant organism to live on land, may belong to a totally unknown branch of the tree of life, scientists say.

These organisms were massive, with some species growing up to 26 feet (8 meters) tall [geoscienceworld.org] and 3 feet (1 m) wide. Named Prototaxites, they lived around 420 million to 375 million years ago during the Devonian period and resembled branchless, cylindrical tree trunks.

Since the first Prototaxites fossil was discovered in 1843, scientists haven't been sure whether they were a plant, fungus or even a type of algae [phys.org]. However, chemical analyses of Prototaxites fossils [livescience.com] in 2007 suggested they were likely a giant ancient fungus [geoscienceworld.org].

Now, according to a study published Wednesday (Jan. 21) in the journal Science Advances [science.org], Prototaxites might not have been a humongous fungus after all — rather, it may have been an entirely different and previously unknown — and now extinct — life-form.

"They are life, but not as we now know it, displaying anatomical and chemical characteristics distinct from fungal or plant life, and therefore belonging to an entirely extinct evolutionary branch of life," study lead co-author Sandy Hetherington [ed.ac.uk], a research associate at the National Museums Scotland and senior lecturer from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Edinburgh, said in a statement [nms.ac.uk].

All life on Earth is classified within three domains — bacteria, archaea and eukarya — with eukarya containing all multicellular organisms within the four kingdoms of fungi, animals, plants and protists [livescience.com]. Bacteria and archaea contain only single-celled organisms.

Previous chemical analysis of Prototaxites fossils indicated that they likely fed off decaying organisms, just like many fungi do today, rather than making their food from carbon dioxide in the air like plants.

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However, according to this new research, Prototaxites may actually have been part of a totally different kingdom of life, separate from fungi, plants, animals and protists.

The researchers studied the fossilized remains of one Prototaxites species named Prototaxites taiti, found preserved in the Rhynie chert, a sedimentary deposit of exceptionally well-preserved fossils of early land plants and animals in Scotland. This species was much smaller than many other species of Prototaxites, only growing up to a few inches tall, but it is still the largest Prototaxites specimen found in this region.

Upon examining the internal structure of the fossilized Prototaxites, the researchers found that its interior was made up of a series of tubes, similar to those within a fungus. But these tubes branched off and reconnected in ways very unlike those seen in modern fungi.

"We report that fossils of Prototaxites taiti from the 407-million-year-old Rhynie chert were chemically distinct from contemporaneous Fungi and structurally distinct from all known Fungi," the researchers wrote in the study. "This finding casts doubt upon the fungal affinity of Prototaxites, instead suggesting that this enigmatic organism is best assigned to an entirely extinct eukaryotic lineage."

True fungi from the same period have also been preserved in the Rhynie chert, enabling the researchers to chemically compare them to Prototaxites. In addition to their unique structural characteristics, the team found that the Prototaxites fossils left completely different chemical signatures to the fungi fossils, indicating that the Prototaxites did not contain chitin, a major building block of fungal cell walls and a hallmark of the fungal kingdom.

The Prototaxites fossils instead appeared to contain chemicals similar to lignin, which is found in the wood and bark of plants.

Kevin Boyce [stanford.edu], a professor at Stanford University, led the 2007 study that posited Prototaxites is a giant fungus and was not involved in this new research. However, he told New Scientist [google.com] that he agreed with the study's findings.

"Given the phylogenetic information we have now, there is no good place to put Prototaxites in the fungal phylogeny," Boyce said. "So maybe it is a fungus, but whether a fungus or something else entirely, it represents a novel experiment with complex multicellularity that is now extinct and does not share a multicellular common ancestor with anything alive today."

—Scientists discover new 15 million-year old fish with last meal fossilized inside its stomach [livescience.com]

—30,000-year-old fossilized vulture feathers 'nothing like what we usually see' preserved in volcanic ash [livescience.com]

—Iguanas sailed one-fifth of the way around the world on rafts 34 million years ago [livescience.com]

More research into Prototaxites fossils needs to be done to determine if they were fungi or a completely different type of life, and what caused them to go extinct millions of years ago.

"The Rhynie chert is incredible. It is one of the world's oldest fossilised terrestrial ecosystems and because of the quality of preservation and the diversity of its organisms, we can pioneer novel approaches such as machine learning on fossil molecular data," study first author Corentin Loron [ed.ac.uk], a researcher at the U.K. Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Edinburgh, said in the statement. "There is a lot of other material from the Rhynie chert already in museum collections for comparative studies, which can add important context to scientific results."

Editor's note: This article was first published in March 2025 following the study's publication on the preprint server bioRxiv, and was updated on Jan. 22 upon the peer-reviewed publication of the study.

Article Sources

Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from extinct and extant Fungi. Sci. Adv.12,eaec6277(2026).DOI:10.1126/sciadv.aec6277 [doi.org]

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However, according to this new research, Prototaxites may actually have been part of a totally different kingdom of life, separate from fungi, plants, animals and protists.

The researchers studied the fossilized remains of one Prototaxites species named Prototaxites taiti, found preserved in the Rhynie chert, a sedimentary deposit of exceptionally well-preserved fossils of early land plants and animals in Scotland. This species was much smaller than many other species of Prototaxites, only growing up to a few inches tall, but it is still the largest Prototaxites specimen found in this region.

Upon examining the internal structure of the fossilized Prototaxites, the researchers found that its interior was made up of a series of tubes, similar to those within a fungus. But these tubes branched off and reconnected in ways very unlike those seen in modern fungi.

"We report that fossils of Prototaxites taiti from the 407-million-year-old Rhynie chert were chemically distinct from contemporaneous Fungi and structurally distinct from all known Fungi," the researchers wrote in the study. "This finding casts doubt upon the fungal affinity of Prototaxites, instead suggesting that this enigmatic organism is best assigned to an entirely extinct eukaryotic lineage."

True fungi from the same period have also been preserved in the Rhynie chert, enabling the researchers to chemically compare them to Prototaxites. In addition to their unique structural characteristics, the team found that the Prototaxites fossils left completely different chemical signatures to the fungi fossils, indicating that the Prototaxites did not contain chitin, a major building block of fungal cell walls and a hallmark of the fungal kingdom.

The Prototaxites fossils instead appeared to contain chemicals similar to lignin, which is found in the wood and bark of plants.

Kevin Boyce [stanford.edu], a professor at Stanford University, led the 2007 study that posited Prototaxites is a giant fungus and was not involved in this new research. However, he told New Scientist [google.com] that he agreed with the study's findings.

"Given the phylogenetic information we have now, there is no good place to put Prototaxites in the fungal phylogeny," Boyce said. "So maybe it is a fungus, but whether a fungus or something else entirely, it represents a novel experiment with complex multicellularity that is now extinct and does not share a multicellular common ancestor with anything alive today."

—Scientists discover new 15 million-year old fish with last meal fossilized inside its stomach [livescience.com]

—30,000-year-old fossilized vulture feathers 'nothing like what we usually see' preserved in volcanic ash [livescience.com]

—Iguanas sailed one-fifth of the way around the world on rafts 34 million years ago [livescience.com]

More research into Prototaxites fossils needs to be done to determine if they were fungi or a completely different type of life, and what caused them to go extinct millions of years ago.

"The Rhynie chert is incredible. It is one of the world's oldest fossilised terrestrial ecosystems and because of the quality of preservation and the diversity of its organisms, we can pioneer novel approaches such as machine learning on fossil molecular data," study first author Corentin Loron [ed.ac.uk], a researcher at the U.K. Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Edinburgh, said in the statement. "There is a lot of other material from the Rhynie chert already in museum collections for comparative studies, which can add important context to scientific results."

Editor's note: This article was first published in March 2025 following the study's publication on the preprint server bioRxiv, and was updated on Jan. 22 upon the peer-reviewed publication of the study.

Article Sources

Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from extinct and extant Fungi. Sci. Adv.12,eaec6277(2026).DOI:10.1126/sciadv.aec6277 [doi.org]

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1. 1Antibiotic resistance is the 'silent pandemic' — here are four steps to stop it [livescience.com]
2. 2How to see 2 total solar eclipses in the next 2 years — including the 'eclipse of the century' [livescience.com]
3. 3 A drying climate is making East Africa pull apart faster [livescience.com]
4. 4Google Glass has found yet another lease of life — but is it too little too late for smart glasses? [livescience.com]
5. 5James Webb telescope peers into 'Eye of God' and finds clues to life's origins — Space photo of the week [livescience.com]

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Get the world’s most fascinating discoveries delivered straight to your inbox.

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However, according to this new research, Prototaxites may actually have been part of a totally different kingdom of life, separate from fungi, plants, animals and protists.

The researchers studied the fossilized remains of one Prototaxites species named Prototaxites taiti, found preserved in the Rhynie chert, a sedimentary deposit of exceptionally well-preserved fossils of early land plants and animals in Scotland. This species was much smaller than many other species of Prototaxites, only growing up to a few inches tall, but it is still the largest Prototaxites specimen found in this region.

Upon examining the internal structure of the fossilized Prototaxites, the researchers found that its interior was made up of a series of tubes, similar to those within a fungus. But these tubes branched off and reconnected in ways very unlike those seen in modern fungi.

"We report that fossils of Prototaxites taiti from the 407-million-year-old Rhynie chert were chemically distinct from contemporaneous Fungi and structurally distinct from all known Fungi," the researchers wrote in the study. "This finding casts doubt upon the fungal affinity of Prototaxites, instead suggesting that this enigmatic organism is best assigned to an entirely extinct eukaryotic lineage."

True fungi from the same period have also been preserved in the Rhynie chert, enabling the researchers to chemically compare them to Prototaxites. In addition to their unique structural characteristics, the team found that the Prototaxites fossils left completely different chemical signatures to the fungi fossils, indicating that the Prototaxites did not contain chitin, a major building block of fungal cell walls and a hallmark of the fungal kingdom.

The Prototaxites fossils instead appeared to contain chemicals similar to lignin, which is found in the wood and bark of plants.

Kevin Boyce [stanford.edu], a professor at Stanford University, led the 2007 study that posited Prototaxites is a giant fungus and was not involved in this new research. However, he told New Scientist [google.com] that he agreed with the study's findings.

"Given the phylogenetic information we have now, there is no good place to put Prototaxites in the fungal phylogeny," Boyce said. "So maybe it is a fungus, but whether a fungus or something else entirely, it represents a novel experiment with complex multicellularity that is now extinct and does not share a multicellular common ancestor with anything alive today."

—Scientists discover new 15 million-year old fish with last meal fossilized inside its stomach [livescience.com]

—30,000-year-old fossilized vulture feathers 'nothing like what we usually see' preserved in volcanic ash [livescience.com]

—Iguanas sailed one-fifth of the way around the world on rafts 34 million years ago [livescience.com]

More research into Prototaxites fossils needs to be done to determine if they were fungi or a completely different type of life, and what caused them to go extinct millions of years ago.

"The Rhynie chert is incredible. It is one of the world's oldest fossilised terrestrial ecosystems and because of the quality of preservation and the diversity of its organisms, we can pioneer novel approaches such as machine learning on fossil molecular data," study first author Corentin Loron [ed.ac.uk], a researcher at the U.K. Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Edinburgh, said in the statement. "There is a lot of other material from the Rhynie chert already in museum collections for comparative studies, which can add important context to scientific results."

Editor's note: This article was first published in March 2025 following the study's publication on the preprint server bioRxiv, and was updated on Jan. 22 upon the peer-reviewed publication of the study.

Article Sources

Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from extinct and extant Fungi. Sci. Adv.12,eaec6277(2026).DOI:10.1126/sciadv.aec6277 [doi.org]

You must confirm your public display name before commenting

Please logout and then login again, you will then be prompted to enter your display name.

Logout LATEST ARTICLES

1. 1Antibiotic resistance is the 'silent pandemic' — here are four steps to stop it [livescience.com]
2. 2How to see 2 total solar eclipses in the next 2 years — including the 'eclipse of the century' [livescience.com]
3. 3 A drying climate is making East Africa pull apart faster [livescience.com]
4. 4Google Glass has found yet another lease of life — but is it too little too late for smart glasses? [livescience.com]
5. 5James Webb telescope peers into 'Eye of God' and finds clues to life's origins — Space photo of the week [livescience.com]

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Journal Reference:
Just a moment..., (DOI: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aec6277 [doi.org])
Just a moment..., (DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aec6277 [doi.org])

See also:

• Just a moment... [science.org]
• Life, but not as we know it... the Prototaxites mystery deepens again! [youtube.com]

Original Submission